To decay or not to decay
Belle experiment
A typical B- → τ-ν candidate event at the Belle experiment. This candidate decays to an electron and missing energy/momentum.
Why do physicists study decay processes? Because they give us the pieces of a puzzle we can't fully reconstruct.
In particle physics, every particle dreams of losing weight and turning
into a bunch of lighter particles. There are no exceptions. This process
is called decaying.
Even the Higgs boson, that elusive goddamned residual particle of the
Higgs field, decays into W bosons, Z bosons, leptons, and photons. In
fact, each Z boson then decays to two leptons.
These processes are important because they allow physicists to
reconstruct objects that exist for too short a period for them to be
captured and studied. Instead, physicists study what the results of the
decay process are and then piece together what must have come before.
Going by observations: The heavier the particle, the stronger the desire
to decay into lighter particles. This is evinced by the particle’s
lifetime.
The most massive elementary particle is the top quark, one of six kinds, or flavours, of quarks. It weighs a whopping 172.9 ± 1.5 GeV/c2,
which is almost as heavy as an atom of tungsten! Its lifetime, however,
is a pitiful five trillion-trillionths of one second. (Here, GeV/c2 is a unit of mass: Einstein's famous equation states mass and energy are related as E = mc2, 'c' being the speed of light. So, m = E/c2.)
One of the least massive elementary particles, on the other hand, is the electron. It weighs a decent 0.511 MeV/c2, is perfectly stable, and never decays.
Decay to what and when
Because of their propensity for decaying, heavier particles will not
only decay faster but also in more combinations of lighter particles.
This is because the heavier you are, the more options there are of
particles lighter than you to choose from. Of course, there are limits
to how often one combination of particles is chosen to decay through
over another.
Moreover, heavier particles seldom come together to make up even heavier
particles. The top quark, for example, doesn’t even last long enough to
pair up with other quarks to form hadrons like protons and neutrons.
However, in the off-chance that two heavy particles have come together,
the composite particle is going to have a far shorter lifetime than
either of the constituents, and is going to decay through literally an
abundance of combinations. One example of such a particle that’s been in
the news is the B_c meson, first discovered by the Tevatron in 1995.
Mesons are particles that contain one quark and one antiquark.
Unfortunately, the B_c meson contains two of the heaviest flavours of
quarks (after the top quark) known – bottom and charm – and so its lifetime is abysmal…
But not abysmal enough for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
The B_c meson decays
The LHCb detector on the LHC is specialised to study the bottom quark, which weighs around 4.2 GeV/c2. The other particle in the B_c meson, the charm antiquark, weighs 1.3 GeV/c2.
Note that these masses are approximates; a strange quantum mechanical principle called colour confinement has kept us from accurately measuring their masses.
Anyway, the B_c meson has access to a whopping 66 decay modes (PDF). However, only a few have been observed experimentally, such as the following:
1. B_c± → J/ψ (meson) + l± (lepton) + ν (neutrino) (link)
2. B_c± → J/ψ + π± (pion) (link)
3. B_c± → J/ψ + K± (kaon)
The B_c’s decay to a J/ψ (pronounced “jay psi”) meson is favoured by experimental physicists because this particle consequently decays into two µ-mesons, i.e. muons, which are easy to detect and measure.
And via a paper submitted to the arXiv pre-print server on March 7, 2013, the LHCb collaboration announced another decay mode that it had spotted: B_c+ → ψ(2S) + π+. Here, ψ(2S), also known as ψ(3686), is an excited state of the J/ψ meson.
The paper also revealed that a B_c’s decay to an excited J/ψ meson instead of a “normal” J/ψ meson happened fully one-fourth of the time. It also noted the emergence of another decay mode: B_c+ → J/ψ + π+ + π+ + π-.
LHCb
data showing spikes for two decay processes of the B_c meson. The
height of each spike denotes the strength of the signal while its
narrowness brackets off the B_c meson's mass-range.
The mechanism of these decays is through what’s called the weak interaction because it transpires through the exchange of W± and Z bosons. What happens is one quark decays while the other remains spectator.
Why are these measurements important? As I stated earlier, the colour
confinement principle, which prevents quarks from being spotted in
isolation, keeps physicists from measuring their masses accurately. By
extension, the B_c meson’s mass also eludes capture.
But when they decay, physicists can zero in on those elusive masses by
noting how the decay process progresses. They use their knowledge of the
properties of lighter particles to piece together the properties of the
heavier particles.
For example, the decay mode B_c± → J/ψ + l± + ν was used in 1998 by scientists at Fermilab to determine the B_c+ meson’s mass to be 6.40 ± 0.39 (stat. error) ± 0.13 (sys. error) GeV/c2 and its lifetime to be around 0.46 picoseconds (i.e., 0.46 of one trillionth of one second).
These are important numbers because 1) they validate some hypotheses and
invalidate some others, 2) they indicate by how much our calculations
were off, and 3) they let us give values to things and find a way to
accommodate them in our formulae.
In fact, this is what most of experimental physics has to give
theoretical particle physics, and side by side, keep our curiosity
well-equipped to keep moving.
Cause of 2011 odd Arctic ozone hole found
Maps of ozone concentrations over the Arctic come from the Ozone
Monitoring Instrument on NASA’s Aura satellite. The left image shows
March 19, 2010, and the right shows the same date in 2011. March 2010
had relatively high ozone, while March 2011 has low levels. Credit:
NASA/Goddard
Washington, March 12:
A combination of extreme cold temperatures, man-made
chemicals and a stagnant atmosphere caused a significant hole in the
Arctic ozone layer in 2011, NASA has found.
Even when
both poles of the planet undergo ozone losses during the winter, the
Arctic’s ozone depletion tends to be milder and short-lived than the
Antarctic’s, researchers said.
This is because the
three key ingredients needed for ozone-destroying chemical reactions —
chlorine from man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), frigid temperatures
and sunlight — are not usually present in the Arctic at the same time.
Still,
in 2011, ozone concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere were about 20
per cent lower than its late winter average, NASA said.
The
new study shows that, while chlorine in the Arctic stratosphere was the
ultimate culprit of the severe ozone loss of winter of 2011, unusually
cold and persistent temperatures also spurred ozone destruction.
Furthermore,
uncommon atmospheric conditions blocked wind-driven transport of ozone
from the tropics, halting the seasonal ozone resupply until April.
“You
can safely say that 2011 was very atypical: In over 30 years of
satellite records, we hadn’t seen any time where it was this cold for
this long,” said Susan E Strahan, an atmospheric scientist at NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt.
“Arctic
ozone levels were possibly the lowest ever recorded, but they were still
significantly higher than the Antarctic’s,” Strahan said in a NASA
statement.
“There was about half as much ozone loss
as in the Antarctic and the ozone levels remained well above 220 Dobson
units, which is the threshold for calling the ozone loss a “hole” in the
Antarctic — so the Arctic ozone loss of 2011 didn’t constitute an ozone
hole,” said Strahan.
The majority of ozone depletion
in the Arctic happens inside the so-called polar vortex: a region of
fast-blowing circular winds that intensify in the fall and isolate the
air mass within the vortex, keeping it very cold.
Most
years, atmospheric waves knock the vortex to lower latitudes in later
winter, where it breaks up. In comparison, the Antarctic vortex is very
stable and lasts until the middle of spring.
But in
2011, an unusually quiescent atmosphere allowed the Arctic vortex to
remain strong for four months, maintaining frigid temperatures even
after the Sun reappeared in March and promoting the chemical processes
that deplete ozone.
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